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UCLan Guide to Writing 2009
TABLE OF CONTENTS
1. INTRODUCTION . .............................................................................................................................. 4 2. TYPES OF ACADEMIC WRITING.................................................................................................... 5 2.1 WHAT IS AN ESSAY?.................................................................................................................... 5 2.2 WHAT IS A REPORT? .................................................................................................................... 6 2.2.1 Having a Pre-Defined Structure......................................................................................... 6 2.2.2 Having Independent Sections ............................................................................................. 7 2.2.2 Reaching Unbiased Conclusions ....................................................................................... 7 2.3 DIFFERENCES BETWEEN ESSAYS AND REPORTS ......................................................................... 8 3. THE PARAGRAPH.............................................................................................................................. 9 3.1
3.2
3.3
3.4
3.5
PARAGRAPH STRUCTURE ............................................................................................................ 9 THE TOPIC SENTENCE ............................................................................................................... 10 TRANSITIONS............................................................................................................................. 11 TRANSITIONAL SENTENCES ....................................................................................................... 12 USING PRONOUNS AND AVOIDING REPEATING YOURSELF ....................................................... 12
4. THE ESSAY ....................................................................................................................................... 13 4.1 PURPOSE OF YOUR ESSAY ................................................................................................. 16 4.2 DIFFERENT TYPES OF ESSAYS............................................................................ ........................ 16 4.2.1 The persuasive essay ........................................................................................................ 16 4.2.2 The 'to what extent' essay ................................................................................................. 17 4.2.3 Compare and contrast essays.............................................................................................18 4.3 EXPRESSING YOUR OPINION IN AN ACADEMIC ESSAY .............................................................. 16 4.4 THE WRITING PROCESS ...................................................................................................... 17 4.5 ANALYSING THE ESSAY QUESTION ........................................................................................... 19 4.5.1 The components of a question .............................................................................................. 19 4.5.2 The vocabulary of questions........................................................................................ 22 4.6 PRE-WRITING ............................................................................................................................. 24 4.6.1 Brainstorming and Narrowing a Topic ............................................................................ 24 4.7 Planning Your Essay………………………………………………………………………… 29 4.7.1 The Sections of an Essay .................................................................................................. 30 4.7.1.1 The Introduction......................................................................................................... 30 4.7.1.2 Thesis statements ....................................................................................................... 32 4.7.1.3 The Main Body .......................................................................................................... 33 4.7.1.4 The Conclusion .......................................................................................................... 33 4.8 WRITING YOUR OUTLINE .......................................................................................................... 34 4.8.1 Formal Outline ................................................................................................................. 39 4.9 RESEARCHING THE ESSAY ......................................................................................................... 38 4.9.1 Research notes .................................................................................................................. 39 4.9.2 Documenting Sources of Information............................................................................... 39 4.10 SYNTHESISING INFORMATION FROM VARIOUS SOURCES .......................................................... 40 4.10.1 Facts versus opinions ....................................................................................................... 40 4.10.2 Concrete Supporting Details ............................................................................................ 41 4.10.2.1 Using Examples ....................................................................................................... 41 4.10.2.2 Statistics ................................................................................................................... 42 4.10.3 Quotations ........................................................................................................................ 42 4.10.3.1 Direct quotations ...................................................................................................... 43 4.10.3.2 Indirect Quotations................................................................................................... 44 4.10.3.3 Changing Direct Quotations to Indirect Quotations ................................................ 45 4.10.4 Paraphrasing .................................................................................................................... 45 2
UCLan Guide to Writing 2009
4.10.4.1 Paraphrasing versus Plagiarism................................................................................ 48 STEPS FOR EFFECTIVE PARAPHRASING ................................................................... 49 4.10.5 Summaries......................................................................................................................... 50 4.11 WRITING DRAFTS
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4.11.1 First Draft Checklist ......................................................................................................... 54 5. REFERENCING & SOURCING........................................................................................................ 55 5.1 REFERENCING: WHAT, WHEN & WHY............................................................................. 55 5.1.1 What is Referencing? ........................................................................................................ 55 5.1.1 When to Reference ............................................................................................................ 55 5.2 GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF HARVARD REFERENCING.................................................................... 56 5.3 IN-TEXT CITATIONS (BOOKS, JOURNALS, MAGAZINES ETC)........................................................ 56 5.3.1 How to Cite 'In-Text'......................................................................................................... 56 5.3.2 Reference List ................................................................................................................... 58 5.3.3 Table of Harvard Citations............................................................................................... 58 5.4 HARVARD REFERENCING FOR ELECTRONIC SOURCES ................................................................ 64 5.4.1 What are Electronic Sources? .......................................................................................... 64 5.4.2 How do I cite Electronic Sources? ................................................................................... 65 5.4.3 Within the Text: In-Text Citations .................................................................................... 65 5.4.4 At the End of the Text: List of References......................................................................... 65 5.4.5 Table for Citing Websites ................................................................................................. 66 5.4.6 Citing Items from a Database ........................................................................................... 67 5.4.7 FAQ's and Troubleshooting.............................................................................................. 74 5.5 INTRODUCING SOURCE'S WORDS OR IDEAS................................................................. 76 5.6 ACADEMIC HONESTY AND AVOIDING PLAGIARISM .................................................................. 77 5.6.1 Checklist for Reviewing your Essay.................................................................................. 78 6. PRESENTING YOUR WORK........................................................................................................... 79 CHECKLIST FOR ESSAY FORMATTING ...................................................................... 80 7. LEARNING FROM CASE STUDIES AND SIMULATIONS.......................................................... 81 7.1
7.2
7.3
WHAT ARE CASE STUDIES AND WHY ARE THEY USED? ............................................................. 81 WHAT A CASE STUDY USUALLY INVOLVES ............................................................................... 81 HOW TO GET THE MOST OUT OF CASE STUDIES ......................................................................... 82
8. ASSESSMENT FEEDBACK ............................................................................................................. 82 8.1
RESPONDING TO FEEDBACK ....................................................................................................... 84
APPENDIX A: ERROR CORRECTION SYMBOLS ........................................................................... 85 APPENDIX B: ABBREVATIONS FOR REFERENCES LIST ……………………………… …..…86
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UCLan Guide to Writing 2009
1. Introduction
The Student Guide to Writing is a tool for you to become a better writer. Learning to be a good writer takes time and patience. You need to think about developing your ideas and planning what you want to say. Then you need to learn how to organize them effectively into an essay or report. Finally you need to revise your work. This guide can help you to learn how to do this, but you will need to spend time reading it and rereading it. You will receive this guide in Study and Communication, but we ask you to keep this guide with you for ALL your classes in level 1 and 2. There are many useful guidelines for essay writing, report writing and case studies in this guide that all of your tutors will expect you to follow. Learning how to write is a process and it takes time. We hope this guide will make your learning process smoother.
Michele Milner
UCLan Course Leader
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UCLan Guide to Writing 2009
2. Types of Academic Writing
In your UCLan modules you will be asked to write both essays and reports. Both of these should be written in academic style but the structure is quite different.
2.1
What is an essay?
An essay is a piece of continuous writing
several paragraphs long, written about
one topic. Because the topic of an essay is
too complex to discuss in one paragraph,
you must divide the topic into several
paragraphs, one for each major point.
An essay always includes an introductory
paragraph at the beginning. This should
give your reader a good idea of what you
are going to write about. The introduction
should also tell the reader what your
purpose is in writing the essay.
You develop your ideas in the body of the
essay. The body usually has several
paragraphs, which develop the key ideas of
your essay. Each paragraph deals with one
main idea and is supported by research and
evidence.
At the end of your essay you summarize
your argument with a concluding
paragraph. This includes a brief summary
of your argument and a final comment or
suggestion.
At the end of your essay there is a
bibliography/reference list which lists all
of the books and articles that you
referenced in the text of the essay.
Introduction
•
•
Background
Thesis statement Purpose
Body paragraph 1
•
•
Topic Sentence
Supporting details,
facts
Body paragraph 2
•
•
Topic Sentence
Supporting details, facts
Body paragraph 3
•
•
Topic Sentence
Supporting details,
facts
Concluding
Paragraph
Bibliography/Reference List
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UCLan Guide to Writing 2009
2.2
What is a report?
A report differs from an essay in that it is designed to provide information which will be acted on, rather than to be read by people interested in the ideas for their own sake. Because of this, it has a different structure and layout.
A report is a specific form of writing that is organised around examining issues or events that have occurred within an organisation, or findings from a research investigation. The key to report writing is informing the reader simply and objectively about all relevant issues.
There are three features of report writing:
• a pre-defined structure
• independent sections
• reaching unbiased conclusions
2.2.1 Pre-Defined Structure of Reports
Reports are different from essays because they use headings to organize the information. Broadly, these headings may indicate sections within a report, such as:
o An executive summary. This contains the main findings of the report in a very condensed form. This is not an introduction, (that’s below), so don’t tell the reader what you’re going to write about, rather say, very succinctly, what you have found out. Imagine that you’re writing this report for a superior who wants to have a good understanding of the issue in the time its takes to walk from his / her office to the toilet. This part is not included in the word limit – however, it should not exceed much more than half a page. You are welcome to write this part (only) in bullet points.
o An introduction. This is where you briefly provide limited background information on the issue.
o A description of the research. In this section you should be concerned with the following
i)
Why, exactly, did you choose to focus on
the areas you selected and ask the
questions you did? How was the research
conducted?
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UCLan Guide to Writing 2009
ii)
Were there any problems encountered in
the research and how were these
overcome?
o Analysis of the research / findings. This is the most important part of the report. You should link your research with the
organisation and the market to which it belongs. In other words there should be a concern for context. If you do it in this way you will be showing analytical, rather than descriptive skills, which is what we are looking for.
o Concluding remarks. Here you summarise the main points of
the report. Although this section should be brief, it shouldn’t be as short as the executive summary and should not be written in a bullet-point style. Normally, no new information should be
inserted at this stage.
In addition, you must write a contents page as your first page. Optionally you can also include a reference list, a list of figures / exhibits (at the beginning of the report after the contents page) and appendices (at the end after the reference list). Although you don’t have to include these pages, they are recommended. If you include a few references that will demonstrate that you have researched widely. (Remember to follow referencing conventions and also to reference in the body of the report in addition to in the actual reference list). A limited inclusion of relevant appendices also demonstrates thorough research and you can also include your interview questions as an appendix. Inclusion of figures / exhibits could add value to your report (remember to label them clearly and refer to them in your text).
2.2.2 Having Independent Sections
Each section in a report is typically written as a stand-alone piece. This means that the reader can identify the report sections they are interested in, and be able to understand them if they read them alone.
2.2.3 Reaching Unbiased Conclusions
A third element of report writing is that it is an unbiased and objective form of writing. You should write about the research or issue you are reporting on without inserting your own opinion.
(Adapted from owll.massey 2008)
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UCLan Guide to Writing 2009
2.3
Differences between Essays and Reports
Purpose
Structure
Essay
- To explore, analyse or
discuss a topic that is
often presented as a
question
- To critically review
relevant literature and
put forward your own
opinions
- To reach a conclusion
supported by your
arguments
Report
- To present your own
research/project work
- To describe the process
and outcomes of the
research or project
- To make
recommendations
Title
Introduction
Body
Conclusion
References
Title
Acknowledgments
Executive summary (B)
Abstract (A)
List of contents
List of tables and illustrations
Introduction
Review of literature (A)
Research Methodology /
Project Outline
Results / Outcomes
Discussion
Conclusion
Recommendations
References / Bibliography
Appendices
(A = Academic; B =
Business)
Format
Usually a continuous piece
of writing with no headings
Language
& Style
-
Formal academic style
Formal vocabulary
Divided into clear numbered
sections, with headings for
each section
-
Factual rather than
descriptive language
Clear and concise
KISS = Keep it short and
simple
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UCLan Guide to Writing 2009
3. The Paragraph
An essay is made up of a number of paragraphs. Therefore, if you are able to write a good paragraph, there’s no reason you can’t write an essay. Paragraphs are groups of sentences that all deal with a single topic. They should always be clear and unified, and have a clear topic sentence at the beginning to indicate what the paragraph is about. The topic sentence has key words that are referred to throughout the paragraph. Each paragraph should stick to one topic, and shouldn’t contain irrelevant information. Paragraphs are linked to each other using transitions.
3.1
Paragraph Structure
In academic writing, good paragraphs generally follow a similar structure, and generally contain the following five parts:
STRUCTURE OF A PARAGRAPH
Introduce the main idea in the topic sentence;
Explain the idea in more detail and develop the topic sentence; Present supporting evidence or examples to give evidence for your idea; this may be a quotation, an expert’s opinion, some data or a study (don’t forget to give an in-text reference for this) Comment on the evidence and show how it relates to the main idea;
Conclude the main idea; it’s a good idea to link it to the essay title or to the next paragraph.
The logic of a paragraph’s organisation can seem clearer if you imagine the above five parts as a dialogue between the writer and reader: Writer:
This is my idea…
Reader:
I see. Can you tell me more?
Writer:
Let me explain…
Reader:
I understand. What evidence is this idea based on?
Writer:
Here’s the evidence: this study shows that…
Reader:
Okay. But how does this relate to your point?
Writer:
The evidence shows that…
Reader:
Okay. So what have we learnt from this?
Writer:
We can therefore say that…
Introduce
Explain
Present
Comment
Conclude
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UCLan Guide to Writing 2009
Looking at an actual paragraph can help you to notice these different features. Here’s an example from an essay about Marketing: The marketing mix of a firm is a result of the
evolution that comes from day-to-day
marketing. At any time the mix represents the
programme that a management has evolved to
meet the problems it constantly faces in an ever
changing, ever challenging market. Jones
(1963) notes that continuous tactical
manoeuvres are needed: a new product,
aggressive promotion, or price change by a
competitor must be considered and equalled; a
hesitant sales force must be reorganised and
stimulated; a decline in sales share must be
diagnosed and remedied; an advertising
approach that has lost effectiveness must be
replaced. All such problems call for a
management to maintain effective channels of
information related to its own operations and to
the day-to-day behaviour of consumers and
competitors. Thus, short-term forces play a
large part in the forming of the mix to be used
at any time and in determining the allocation of
resources among the various accounts of the
operating statement.
Introduce
the
main idea in the
topic sentence
Explain this idea
in more detail
Present
supporting
evidence
(with
citation!)
Comment on the
evidence
Concluding
sentence
Paragraph adapted from: Borden, N.H. (1964) ‘The Concept of the Marketing Mix’ Journal of Advertising Research, 4 (June), 2-7.
Some questions to think about in relation to this paragraph: Q.
What is the central point of the paragraph?
Q.
Q.
Whose evidence is it?
Q.
3.2
What evidence is presented to support this point?
According to the writer, why is this evidence important?
The Topic Sentence
The topic sentence gives the reader a clear idea of what the paragraph is going to be about, and helps them to understand what you are going to write about. This is why it should be the first sentence of a paragraph. The topic sentence ‘controls’ what the paragraph is about, so the other sentences in the paragraph must all relate it to in some way. As well as helping the reader, it also helps you – the writer – to stay focused on your 10
UCLan Guide to Writing 2009
purpose. In the example above, the topic sentence relates the marketing mix to everyday marketing decisions. Consequently, all the other sentences in the paragraph relate to, and expand on, this central idea. A good topic sentence should always contain a topic and a controlling idea. The topic is normally easy: it is simply the main subject of the paragraph. The controlling idea can be more difficult: it should state what you want to say about the topic. Here are some examples of good topic sentences:
Most companies have regular audits to check the accuracy of their accounts. topic
controlling idea
There are several advantages to having a strong visual identity for the product. controlling idea
topic
Firms can stay competitive by paying close attention to other companies’ services. topic
controlling idea
Without a controlling idea, the topic sentence is not specific enough. For example, ‘Firms can stay competitive’ is insufficient as a topic sentence because it doesn’t give the reader enough information about what the paragraph will be about.
3.3
Transitions
Transitions hold your ideas together by connecting them to each other. Transitions can be made from sentence to sentence, or from paragraph to paragraph. They are used to clearly explain the logic of your argument to the reader. They make the connection of ideas specific. Here are some of the most common types of logical connection, and corresponding words or phrases that are often used at the start of sentences:
Adding relating information:
In addition…,
Furthermore…,
Moreover…
Adding contrasting information:
However…,
On the other hand…,
In contrast...,
Nevertheless...,
In spite of [something]…
Showing a cause and effect As a result…,
relationship:
Thus…,
Therefore…,
Accordingly…
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UCLan Guide to Writing 2009
It is important to use these transitional words. Otherwise the reader may not understand the logic of your argument and how your ideas link to each other.
In order to connect paragraphs to each other, transitions are often used in the topic sentence. Here’s an example of a topic sentence containing a transition:
Consequently, the marketing mix can be used to apply
marketing principles to a variety of business types.
In this example, the use of the word Consequently makes the writer’s logic clear: the ideas put forward in this paragraph are a result of the ideas in the previous paragraph. The transition makes the text flow more smoothly and easier to read. Without the linking word, the reader may not be able to understand how the writer’s ideas connect to each other.
3.4
Transitional Sentences
Transitional sentences are used in a similar way, to help bridge the central idea of one paragraph of an essay to another. Thus, in the concluding sentence of a paragraph they often summarise the main point and show how it relates to, or follows into, the next paragraph. As with the use of simple transition words, the purpose of these sentences is to make your logic clear. Here’s an example of a transitional sentence at the end of a paragraph:
Having considered the promotional budget, two related
points also have to be considered.
In the paragraph that follows, the reader can expect a discussion of what these two points are – the transitional sentence signals this connection of ideas to the reader.
3.5
Using Pronouns and Avoiding Repeating Yourself
As stated above, transitions link sentences and paragraphs together to make the text clear and easy to read. Using pronouns well can also make your writing more readable. Words like she, they and that can refer back to something that has already been mentioned. Here’s an example: Kotler (2001) outlines three major concepts in his essay.
These show how the marketing mix can be adapted in the
era of global commerce.
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UCLan Guide to Writing 2009
His refers back to ‘Kotler (2001)’ and these refers back to ‘three major concepts’. By using these pronouns, the writer avoids repeating him/herself and makes the text flow more smoothly. Here are some examples of referring pronouns:
Subject pronouns
Possessive pronouns
Object pronouns
Demonstrative
pronouns
Other phrases
he / she / it / they
his / her / hers / their / theirs
her / him / them
this / that / these / those
the former / the latter / the first / the second /
as mentioned above
Table from: Bailey, S. (2003) Academic Writing: A Practical Guide for Students, Abingdon, Oxon: Routledge Falmer, p.55.
4. The Essay
4.1
Purpose of your Essay
Your essay will be more effective if you have a purpose for writing it. Many students when they begin writing their essays have to ‘write 800 words and use information from three sources’ as their goal. Better writers usually have a more specific purpose in mind when they write: to persuade their readers that what they are writing is true. Suppose your thesis statement is:
Environmental problems are not caused by large corporations
alone because individuals contribute to these problems as well.
Your purpose might be to persuade your reader not to buy items that come elaborately packaged in non-recyclable containers. Some of your essays will be written to inform or clarify but if you also try to persuade your reader, your writing will become increasingly effective. Your main objective in academic study is to answer or clearly address the essay question.
4.2
Different types of Essays
Depending on the purpose of your essay, you will need to use certain structures or essay types. Here are some common essay types. 4.2.1
The persuasive essay
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UCLan Guide to Writing 2009
If your purpose is to persuade the reader of your point of view on an issue or topic then you will write a type of argumentative essay called the persuasive essay.
Although you are expressing your opinion, all of your ideas must be logically supported - you should produce your evidence and explain why this evidence supports your point of view. It is important to distinguish between your claim (your point of view, what you believe), your evidence (the facts that support your point of view) and your reasons (why you believe what you do, how the evidence you have provided leads to the claim you are making).
A persuasive argumentative essay involves stating your own point of view immediately, and trying to convince the reader by reasoned argument that you are right. The essay title may begin with something like:
Give your views on....; What do you think about...?; Do you agree that...?; Consider whether....
The form of the essay will be, in outline, as follows:
Introduce the topic briefly in general terms, and then make your thesis statement which outlines what you plan to prove in the essay.
Reasons against the argument. Dispose briefly of the main objections to your case. Provide evidence and your reasons.
Reasons for your argument. State the arguments to support your own view, with evidence, reasons and examples.
Conclusion – Summarise the main points and make a final statement that leaves a strong impression.
4.2.2 The ‘to what extent’ essay
In this type of essay you are given a statement which is obviously true. However truth is never 100% and you must decide how true it is. Are there some areas where you disagree with the statement? If so, describe how far you agree, and your points of agreement and disagreement. This essay is also a persuasive essay so you need to use evidence carefully to support your ideas and convince the reader. Words used in the question are:
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UCLan Guide to Writing 2009
To what extent ....,How true ....,How far do you agree....
Introduction to the pro...